Transition to school
The transition to school has been recognised as one of the major challenges children have to face in their early childhood years (Victorian Department of School Education, 1992, p. 44). The challenge extends to all concerned, as parents, teachers and children manage changes which can accompany the move to school settings (Margetts, 1997). The expectations of each of these groups in the transition to school influences, and is influenced by, the experiences involved. Successful transitions involve collaboration between all of these groups.
Much of the research relating to children's transition to school has focused on the expectations of teachers and parents (Davies & North, 1990; Hains, Fowler, Schwartz, Kottwitz and Rosenkoetter, 1989). While parents and teachers share some common expectations, there are differences between these groups, as well as some within-group differences for teachers, depending on whether they work in prior-to-school or school settings. For example, Haines et al. (1989) reported that teachers in the first year of school focussed on children's ability to function within a classroom environment, whereas preschool teachers placed a strong emphasis on skills they saw as necessary in an successful transition to school. Parents and teachers also may have different expectations about transition to school.
Lewit and Baker (1995)
report that the majority (more than 75%) of teachers involved in their
study indicated that the children being physically healthy, rested and
well nourished were essential, while parents were much more likely than
teachers to report that academic skills were important in order for children
to make a successful transition to school. Both groups reported that communication
skills, enthusiasm and social skills were important.
Children starting school bring with them a wide array of experiences and
understandings. As a result, they experience the transition to school
in different ways (Rimm-Kaufman, Cox and Pianta, 1998). Despite this growing
recognition that the starting school experiences of children will differ,
there have been few attempts to investigate these experiences from the
perspectives of those children (Christensen, 1998; Dockett, Clyde & Perry,
1998).
The expectations of participants also shape the transition experiences of children starting school. Family support is influential in children'' adjustment to school (Johnson, 1997) and in achieving successful learning outcomes (Hargreaves, 1994). Teacher's expectations - some of which are formed during the transition period (Entwisle, 1995) - directly influence children's school experiences. Teachers who facilitate parent participation tend to engender positive attitudes towards school from both parents and children (Onsman, 1996). Of the few studies which have considered children's expectations of school, a sense of disappointment and negativity is reported among children whose expectations do not match the reality (Brostrom, 1995; Christensen, 1998). Children who have experienced the school context through repeated visits or contact are more likely than others to hold realistic expectations (Brostrom, 1995).
On the basis that the transition to school has significant implications for children's later learning and success, educations authorities around the world have developed specific transition programs (for example, California State Department of Education, 1997; Fox, 1995; Schuster & Hemmeter, 1995). While there have been several efforts to do the same in New South Wales (Bowen, 1995; Catholic Education Office, Parramatta, 1998; Sanderson & Nicholson, 1998), there has not yet been a comprehensive state wide consideration of the perceptions and expectations of the different groups of participants, nor any major effort to develop transition programs which acknowledge and respond to these.
Children who experience similar environments and expectations at home and school are likely to find the transition to school, as well as school in general, an easier process (Nelson, 1995; Morrison, Griffith & Alberts, 1997). The converse also holds - children who find school unfamiliar and unrelated to their home contexts tend to experience difficulty, confusion and anxiety during the transition. It is particularly where there are cultural differences between home and school that effective transition programs are vital (Toomey, 1998). Such programs respect the different perspectives and expectations that converge when children start school and aim to develop an effective partnership between parents and teachers. Despite an array of literature (for example, Davidowitz, 1998; Jang, 1995; Richardson, 1997), there is disagreement as to what constitutes effective transition programs. While it is to be expected that different programs are effective in different contexts, there remain few published or publicly debated sets of general principles to guide those developing and implementing transition programs. There is evidence that teachers developing transition programs are influenced both by their theoretical position and by their expectations of children and families in different environments. For example, Nelson (1995) has reported differences in teacher expectation when children are from urban, suburban or rural environments, belong to minority or non-minority groups, and where there are different socio-economic backgrounds. These expectations have influenced what is included in transition programs as well as what constitutes a successful transition. In many cases, teachers but not parents or children, make these decisions. While there are similarities in the expectations of parents and teachers about what is important as children start school, there was sufficient difference (evident from the pilot studies conducted 1996-98; see About the Project: History) to suggest that both groups may be working towards eh same aim of a successful transition, but in very different ways. The considerable difference between the expectations of the adult and child participants in transition suggests that, whatever the adults are doing, it is interpreted by the children in terms of rules. The result is that there will be times of confusion and conflicting expectations that could be avoided if all participants had a more active role in discussing or planning transition experiences.
The aim of the project is to work collaboratively with parents, teachers and children to develop, implement and evaluate transition programs which are socially and culturally relevant for their contexts. As a result of the Pilot Studies we know that there are significant differences in perceptions of adults - teachers and parents - and children about what is important for effective transition to school (Dockett & Perry, 1999; Perry et al, under review). In this project, we seek to expand and use this information to the practical aim of developing, trialing and evaluating effective transition to school programs. Specifically the aims of the project are to:
- Analyse data from the pilot studies in order to develop general principles underpinning effective transition to school programs. Such principles will take account of the geographical, socio-economic, cultural and special needs of the stakeholders.
- Distribute these principles widely through the industry partners and related services, in order to promote broad discussion.
- Work collaboratively in specific school communities to develop transition programs which reflect these principles.
- Provide ongoing professional development support for the trial of these programs, through regular contact with teachers and/or relevant consultants.
- Establish a framework for the evaluation of these programs, both from within and from outside the school community.
- Revise the programs according to the results of the trial.
- Disseminate information relating to best practice in relation to transition to school programs.
- Enhance the learning outcomes of young children by establishing and maintaining collaborative interaction among children, parents and teachers.
The significance of the project lies in the potentially positive outcomes for young children as they participate in relevant transition programs, the nature of the collaboration supporting the project and the research methodology which recognises the influence and expectations of children as well as parents and teachers, on school experiences.
Children's images of themselves as learners are influenced greatly by their school experiences (Hadley, Wilcox & Rice, 1994). Their experiences of success, or otherwise, have a direct impact on their future success at school and on their own sense of self and self esteem. Children who experience academic and social difficulties in the early school years are likely to continue having problems throughout their school careers, and indeed, through their adult life (Maxwell, 1993; Parker & Asher, 1987). Such difficulties may be evidenced by grade retention, a low self-esteem, disruptive behaviour or an overall attribution of failure. Effective transition programs have the potential to help children - and their parents - feel comfortable, valued and successful in school and hence, to avoid these negative outcomes.
As the study involves the major stakeholders in early childhood education, including the children themselves, across various geographical regions in New South Wales, it has the potential to influence practice for significant numbers of children. It is innovative in that it builds upon the extensive use of survey and focus group interviews with the stakeholders in children's transition to school in a wide variety of locations across New South Wales. Based on the pilot studies, the project expects to find differences in these locations and is designed to respect these. At the completion of the project and subject to the recognition of intellectual property, the set of principles, transition programs and relevant evaluation data will be made available for use by the industry partners. The major theoretical advance in the early childhood field to come from this study is the move away from the expectation that transition programs can be the same for all communities and all groups across the state and nation. This will result from the recognition of the different perceptions and expectation of all participants and the active responses to them, rather than the typical, centralised approaches which have been characteristic of the large school education authorities in the past. The outcomes of the project will have direct benefit outside New South Wales by providing validated guidelines for transition to school programs. These guidelines will be adaptable to many different contexts, as will the programs developed from them. Publication and dissemination of these guidelines and programs through the national groupings of which the industry partners for this project are members will facilitate their use in other states and territories of Australia as transition to school programs which reflect the needs and perspectives of different communities in these states and territories are developed.
The project brings together a large number of stakeholders who have particular interest in young children's transition to school. The number of partners reflects the complex nature of the early childhood field. Their willingness to come together to work collaboratively on a project such as this reflects the important the area to each of the partners, as well as their belief that the Chief Investigators have the necessary skills, background and professional standing to address the issues inherent in children's transition to school. Each of the industry partners is committed to the project and has been a part of its development through their active participation in the Advisory Committee which has guided the Pilot Studies.
Pilot Studies
The research here outlined builds on a series of pilot studies conducted in 1996, 1997 and 1998, which involved focus group interviews (Minichiello, Aroni, Timewell & Alexander, 1995) with parents, teachers in prior-to-school settings, teachers in school settings, children who had just started school, children who were about to start school, and children who had been at school for some time. Using grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), interview data were analysed, and response categories were created to reflect the issues which were reported by parents, teachers and children as important to consider when children started school (Dockett & Perry, 1999; Perry, Dockett & Tracey, 1998b). These categories, supported by relevant research, were used to develop an extensive questionnaire, which was distributed to parents and teachers across New South Wales in 1998.
Several trends emerged from the questionnaire and interview data. The categories identified in the pilot studies were supported by confirmatory factor analysis, as were the different patterns of responses from parents, teachers and children reported in the pilot studies. For example, both teachers and parents indicated that social adjustmentto the school setting was the most important aspect to consider, followed by the child's disposition towards school and learning, and then the requisite skills to operate in a school setting. Parents, but not teachers, also indicated that it was important for children to demonstrate some knowledge (such as reading or writing their name) before starting school (Dockett, Perry & Tracey, 1997; Perry, Dockett & Howard, under review). Parents were also more concerned than teachers about children's physical adjustment to school and about the nature of the educational environment they had chosen for their child. In contrast, the overwhelming response from children interviewed was that it was important to know the rules which apply at school. Some 76% of all responses from the children in the pilot studies stressed the rules category, with very few mentioning knowledge (10%) and skills (7%) (Perry, Dockett & Tracey, 1998a, 1998b). The Starting School project builds on the pilot studies by using the data already gathered to inform the development of transition programs. Parents and teachers in 15 locations across New South Wales have completed the questionnaire. By the end of 2000 further groups of parents and teachers, as well as groups of children, in the same locations, will have been interviewed in order to provide elaboration of the questionnaire responses.
Methodology
The project has four phases:
- Identification of an agreed set of principles which underpin effective transition programs.
- Development of transition programs based on these principles and community involvement.
- Trialing of these programs.
- Evaluation and refinement of these programs according to the principles identified in the first phase.
Data from each phase will be analysed and used to inform subsequent phases. The approach involves:
- Identification of, and regular interaction with, local contact personnel in each region.
- Meetings with members of participant groups to discuss the set of principles.
- Collaborative planning of the transition programs, facilitated by staff of the project.
- Implementation of the programs.
- Case studies to measure the effect of the transition programs on learning outcomes.
- Evaluating the programs through documentation and interviews with participants.
- Reporting back to participants on the data collected for validation and response.
- Adapting the programs in response to the evaluation.
Expected Outcomes
One general outcome from the project is the continuation of an extensive collaborative research network of early childhood educators and services involved in young children's transition to school. Meetings of the stakeholders formed to guide the Pilot Studies have resulted in new alliances and a greater awareness of services across the state (Dockett, Howard & Perry, 1999; Perry, Howard, Dockett & Tracey, 1998).
Specific outcomes of the project are:
The publication of a set of general principles which underpin effective transition programs. It is anticipated that this will generate a range of discussion and debate about transition programs, which in itself, will heighten the profile of these programs within schools and within school communities.
A model for the collaborative planning of context-relevant transition to school programs.
Several different models of transition programs, developed in and for specific contexts.
An evaluative framework to assess the quality and relevance of transition programs.
Trial of these programs and evaluation based on the established criteria.
A portfolio representing examples of best practice in transition programs, based on the guidelines and the consideration of the social context of the stakeholders.
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